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Were Quilts or Quilt Blocks Really Used to Convey Messages, or Not?

Patricia Cummings
 photos by James Cummings

August 21, 2005

A Background

When the book, Hidden in Plain View was published in 1999, I received it as a birthday gift. When I began reading it, "things did not add up" to what I know about quilt history.

On January 18, 2004, art quilter, L'Merchie Frazier presented a talk at the New Hampshire Historical Society's Tuck Library that centered around information provided by the book of her friend, Raymond Dobard, Jr., Ph.D. She entitled her slide lecture, “Quilts, Coded Signals, and the Underground Railroad.” She explained the symbolic meanings of geometric and appliqué designs in African textiles, and suggested that they are linked to quilt blocks that could have been used as part of an unspoken code that helped guide slaves to freedom via the Underground Railroad. In her presentation, Frazier described African cloth making traditions.

After attending the meeting, I returned home and began to write down my thoughts. I wrote more than four thousand words on the topic, easily, and proceeded to round up quilt blocks from my collection to illustrate the article. Those examples I did not have, I created, for purposes of illustration. On February 5, 2004, the lengthy article became a front page story in UnRavel the Gavel newspaper.

After she saw the article on my website, Rosemary Kostansek, the editor of NeedleArts magazine, asked to reprint it. Consequently, a ten page article was featured in that publication in June 2004.

A four page article was later written and published in The Quilter magazine in September 2004.

Fair Warning: Hidden in Plain View is the book responsible for the conclusion that slaves used quilt blocks as message conveyors.

If you have not read that book, nor attempted to understand what the co-authors set forth, there is no sense in writing to me to "dispute" anything I have said in my careful considerations of the matter at hand.

No Objections, Save One

My first article was placed online for more than one year, and ten thousand people visited that file. Letters of support for the clear information presented poured in from quilt historians and other interested parties.

The print publications for which I write have a broad circulation. Of the thousands of readers, only one woman wrote to say that she did not agree with what I said, and she wants to continue to believe in the ideas of the book in question. She is as passionate in her beliefs, as I am sure of my opinion that there is absolutely no proof of any kind to support the idea that quilt blocks were used in the manner proposed. Indeed, the configured quilt blocks mentioned are not even known for certain to have existed at the time, and many of the designs were not seen until the early twentieth century.

And So, We Begin Our Discussion:
The Nature of a Myth

Myths have been described as being made-up stories that did not happen in actuality, or may have had a grain of truth, at the beginning. Folklorists are fascinated by the roots of any given myth, and how myths evolve. In part, myths serve to define how a culture would like to view itself.

Sometimes, myths are didactic and exist only to teach a lesson. A prime and often cited example is the myth of George Washington  who reportedly cut down a cherry tree, but confessed his error to his father. This is a clear example of a didactic or teaching myth.

As you read through all of the remaining text, periodically ask yourself what purpose this myth seems to serve.

The Public is Eager to Embrace This New
“Historical” Information

Amazingly, the general public and quilt hobbyists alike were quick to embrace this new myth. The “news” spread like wildfire. Without having reading the book upon which the information was based; or perhaps having read the book but maybe not having understood it, educators adopted lesson plans as a quick and easy way to include ethnic diversity in their schools.

School districts welcomed the inclusion of quilt blocks (usually paper ones) into the curriculum, as a leap forward in teaching Social Studies, Math, and other subjects. This move was viewed as a way to be politically correct, and to help young people relate to their "heritage.”

Those Who Would Profit

Children’s books, quilt books, and new classroom curricula materials were written, as people rushed in to try to make money, based on selling misinformation to the public, sometimes because they did not know the difference, and sometimes just because they wanted to capitalize on an idea.

“Selling the Story” to the American Public

One book, Sweet Clara and the Freedom Quilt (Dragonfly Books, published by Alfred A. Knopf. Inc., 1993),  pre-dates Hidden in Plain View. The author, Deborah Hopkinson, was inspired to write a book for children whose opening paragraph says this:

“By piecing together scraps of cloth with scraps of information gathered from other slaves, Clara fashions a map so secret even the master won’t suspect.”

More books of this type for children have already been written by other authors. The books all have one common component. They lend mystery, secrecy, and romance to tales of successful slave escapes, in beautifully illustrated volumes.

Quilters Buy the Story

Adult quiltmakers have purchased Civil War reproduction fabrics and are making “Underground Railroad” quilts. A book, The Underground Railroad Sampler, by Eleanor Burns, (Quilt in a Day, 2003) encouraged quilters in this quest to re-create history, albeit pseudo-history.

The two reviewers who assessed this book on www.amazon.com, found it to be an “attempted staging of history,” and “unnecessarily complicated, historically and practically.” One person suggested a "ceremonial burning of the Burns book,” apparently because of its alleged difficult instructions.

Can you possibly understand how sickening it was for me, as a quiltmaker, to go into a quilt shop and listen to a (white) woman, clutching her “how to make an underground railroad quilt” book, and scurrying about in an attempt to find just the “right fabrics”? She certainly was sold more than fabric that day. She already had been sold “a bill of goods.”

Historical Background

What Exactly was the Underground Railroad?

The “Underground Railroad” had no trains and was not located underground. One legendary source of the name is an incident in 1831. In Kentucky, an escaping slave named Tice Davids was being chased, and when he reached the water’s edge, he jumped in, and swam across the river to Ripley, Ohio. When his pursuer had glanced away for a moment, and then had looked back, the escapee was nowhere in sight. The man stated that, “The nigger must have gone off on an underground road,” a direct quote from the book, Fleeing For Freedom: Stories of the Underground Railroad, as told by Levi Coffin and William Still (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2004).

Enablers

In time, the term “Underground Railroad,” came to mean not only the escape route, but the network of people who aided slaves along their path to freedom.

The Underground Railroad was described, at the time, in terminology borrowed from the ever expanding intercontinental railroad system. "Steel rail” terminology included such words as “conductors,” the brave souls who put themselves at great risk by escorting slaves, and "stations," the safe havens to where slaves were directed. A station could be a house, a barn, a cave, a haystack, or any   place that could provide temporary, safe shelter.

Various abolitionists, including members of certain religious groups, especially the Quakers, would assist the fugitives by being conductors. Freed slaves would sometimes assist, as well as fraternal organizations. Harriet Tubman, one of the most famous conductors, is the subject of two new excellent biographies. According to historians, Tubman led seventy slaves to freedom. That number conflicts with the previous figure of two hundred slaves, by some accounts. Her life, and all of the challenges she had to overcome to achieve her goals, are just amazing.

The People Behind the Story of the Secret Quilt Code

Raymond G. Dobard, Ph.D., is an instructor in the Art History Department at Howard University and co-author of the book, Hidden in Plain View: A Secret Story of Quilts and the Underground Railroad. Co-author Jacqueline L. Tobin, an instructor in Women’s Studies at the University of Denver, had met Ozella McDaniel Williams, around whom the secret quilt code debate is centered, when Williams was selling quilts in an open air marketplace, in consecutive years. Williams would not reveal the whole story at first, and told Tobin to come back another time. This, in itself, has raised the eyebrows of historians. Why was the lapse of three years needed to construct or re-construct the "code"?

Conjecture or Truth?

Since publication of the book in 1999, controversy has surrounded its details. Dobard himself states, on page 33, that Hidden in Plain View is based on
“informed conjecture.” His sentiment to that effect has seemed to have changed, over time, and after coming under attack by those who question the scholarship of the book, the authors appear to have become more defensive in an attempt to position themselves as having presented real information that is correct and true.

Benefits of Open Dialogue

At the very least, Hidden in Plain View makes us wonder what the conditions of slaves were really like. Attention has again been called to the conditions leading to the American Civil War, in general, and to Black History, especially as it relates to the new “information” set forth.

Questions have arisen, including, but not limited to, the following:

What were the daily living conditions for slaves? How much free time would they have had for quilting activities?

Did they have sewing skills sufficient enough to have made the particular quilt blocks described, (some that would be a challenge for many of today’s quilters, even with all the latest tools, fabrics, and books?)

Where did they get their cloth and supplies for quilting? Some of the blocks, in order to be configured in a certain way would have required not just unrelated scraps, but enough same fabric pieces to create the overall block design.

In what manner were quilt blocks used as signals? Would it not look odd to be carrying around quilt blocks? (In some instances, it has been insinuated that whole quilts were the topic of this discussion, an even more implausible concept!)

How could universal meaning of the quilt blocks, if they did contain occult messages, have been known from group to group, or from plantation to plantation?

Why did the slaves not just talk to each other to share news of an attempted escape? Although originally kidnapped from Central and Western Africa, by this time period, slaves had developed language abilities to the point that they could share verbal, inter-tribal communications.

Are there any slave-made quilts still in existence? None from the thirty year time period we are discussing.

Have any extant quilts been found here or in Canada?

The book Hidden in Plain View reveals an extant, slave-made, Log Cabin quilt from the time period of the Underground Railroad that is in the hands of The Raleigh Township Centennial Museum in N. Buxton, Canada, according to curator, Alice Newby. Dobard offers this as proof that Log Cabin quilts existed "that early." What cannot be proven is how the quilt was used, or if it was, indeed, a message signal device.

Re: Log Cabin Quilts in Canada
November 15, 2006 e-mail from Leigh Fellner provides the following information:

I have spoken to and corresponded with Newby, who retired as curator sometime around 2003. She informed me that neither of the museums' two quilts are "slave made," and it is known exactly how they were used and whether they were "message signal devices." Both were made by freedmen as gifts to their former owner. Rev. William King, years after they had arrived in Canada (not via the UGRR) in 1849.

You can see the quilts here:  http://tinyurl.com/yxm9dr The Log Cabin appears to be made of silk, which would suggest it was made no earlier than the 1880s, after imported silk became inexpensive (Brackman's noted that the earliest LC quilts are of wool delaine or cotton).  The other, on the bed, was made for King's second wedding in 1853.  Additionally,  since 2000 the museum has been known as Buxton Historic Site and Museum.

The Number of Escaping Slaves?

How many people escaped on the Underground Railroad? An estimated one percent of the four million slaves who escaped, headed north. In the Charleston area, they would have either stayed in the city, trying to “blend in” as freed men, or would have traveled further south. The few that took a northerly path would have traveled up the coast, some of those on ships whose captains were abolitionists. Other slaves were hidden on whaling ships for a period of five or six years, according to maritime and textile historian, Tora Sterragaard, of the Mystic Seaport Museum, in Mystic, Connecticut.

Other Questions

How did they travel? By foot, by wagon, or by any means in which they would not be noticed.

Did escaping slaves travel during the day or only at night? Night travel was preferred by those heading north. There was more safety in darkness, and they could orientate themselves by looking at the evening skies.

Were there certain routes taken? Sure. Tried and true routes with safe havens for food and shelter were preferred.

How did they find their way? Dobard suggests that knots on textiles were used. Paper maps could have been used. More likely, word of mouth directions were their guides.

How did African traditions in cloth making and textile symbolism impact on American quilt designs?

Look at any ancient civilization and there will be similarities in designs. As an artist, I know that there are basically two types of lines: a straight line that is a continuum, or a circular line that creates an enclosed space.

The human experience is the same, and has been, over time. Therefore, there are huge points of connection between all art, whether it be primitive cave paintings or twenty-first century murals. As is said, we cannot reinvent the wheel.

Ozella's Secret Quilt Code

"There are five square knots on the quilt every two inches apart. They escaped on the fifth knot on the tenth pattern and went to Ontario, Canada."

"The monkey wrench turns the wagon wheel toward Canada on a bear's paw trail to the crossroads."

"Once they got to the crossroads they dug a log cabin on the ground. Shoofly told them to dress up in cotton and satin bow ties and go to the cathedral church, get married, and exchange double wedding rings."

"Flying geese stay on the drunkard's path and follow the stars."

All of the above, highlighted, words refer to quilt blocks. Read on, for a discussion of blocks.

“Write This Down”

Ozella McDaniel Williams, an elderly, Black quilt vendor in the port city of Charleston, South Carolina, shared her family’s secret quilt code with Jacqueline Tobin, a (Caucasian) professor who is fond of recording the stories of women. Williams died in 1998, before publication of Hidden in Plain View. Knowing that she was dying of cancer, Williams told Jacqueline to write down the details of the code story.

All is not as it first appears. Williams possessed a law degree from Howard University. Therefore, it seems that one can dismiss the stereotype of her being (just) a poor, street vendor.

Quilt Blocks as Guides to Action? A Look, One by One

We will now look at the specific quilt blocks mentioned in Hidden in Plain View.

Bear’s Paw Block Provides Faulty Advice

According to the “secret quilt code,” certain quilt blocks were used as mnemonic (or memory) devices to assist fugitive slaves along their journey. For example, the “Bear’s Paw” block would symbolically tell the escapees to “follow the bear’s paw prints, and go over the mountain.” The mountains in question would have been the Appalachians, a treacherous journey fraught with many dangers from the terrain itself, to bandits, and wild animals. Two well-worn paths were located on either side of the mountain, leading to freedom in Ohio. Cincinnati was a destination point for slaves heading to Canada.

                                     Crossroads Block

Travel in a Crooked Line: Drunkard’s Path

In the code, the “Drunkard’s Path” block would mean “do not travel in a straight path; you might be followed.” Block shown here, circa 1880. Supposedly, the slaves would need to weave their way to freedom on a crooked path, so as not to be caught. One wonders how many slaves knew exactly where they were going. It is easy to become disoriented in the woods, and my guess is that the escapees would not want to be seen in the light of day, parading down a town’s main street, although they might have been hidden in a large wagon with a faux bottom, or under hay or blankets.

Shoofly

The “Shoofly” block, reminiscent of a song by the same name, supposedly signifies that “it’s not safe to travel in a group, so scatter.” This configuration is seen in some African textiles, and is a timeless design. The superimposed
“meaning” transcends the block’s geometric configuration, that is, the intended meaning, if there were one, is not easily ascertained, just be viewing the block.

Differences in Flying Geese Configurations

As it is diagrammed in Hidden in Plain View, the "Flying Geese” block depicted is actually a quilt block that is more commonly known as "Dutchman’s Puzzle,” as published by a Quilter’s Newsletter Magazine catalogue in 1969. (Most common "Flying Geese" configuration in vertical alignment, shown to the right). The block is an abstract representation of geese in flight.

“Wild Goose Chase,” the name of a similar block to the one shown in Dobard’s book. The block was published by Beth Gutcheon in The Perfect Patchwork Primer, (Penguin Books, 1974), and is divided into four quadrants with two “geese” in each section, and each set of two triangles faces a different way. The interpretation given by Dobard is that if the color of one set of triangles is altered, that distinct orientation could indicate the direction in which the fugitives were to travel. This is a clever thought.

Dresden Plate

The “Dresden Plate” block whose roots have been linked to the china dinnerware of Dresden, Germany, is identified in the color plate section of Hidden in Plain View, as a block that the authors “suspect” might have signified either Dresden, Ohio or Dresden, Ontario, two possible slave destinations. That particular block is not listed in the back of the book as part of the official “secret quilt code,” as relayed by Ozella. (1930s block shown here)

Serena Wilson offers a different interpretation of “Dresden Plate.” She mentions that a church built in 1856, a “meeting place” for Blacks in Niagara Falls, Ontario, had a Dresden Plate window that escapees were being instructed to find. Standing in opposition to that statement is Leigh Fellner who points out that the particular church in question which was built in 1836, at about the same time the Underground Railroad activities got underway, had Gothic (arched) windows, not circular shaped ones that look like plates.

“Monkey Wrench” Block as Memory Device?

This section was updated with new information on November 13, 2006.

The “Monkey Wrench” block may have been a signal to slaves to “get your tools together.” There is only one hitch with that theory. It is questionable as to whether or not the monkey wrench tool that inspired the quilt block configuration had been yet called by that name. I was told by one reader, Laura Robins-Morris, that she has found a citation in the Oxford Dictionary that states that the tool was not invented until 1858, by Charles Moncky, in America. (Previously, it had been listed here as having been made invented in 1850). She observes, "That date (1858) would make it even more implausible that the block had any meaning in the ugrr context."  Double Monkey Wrench block, made by Pat Cummings, shown here, above.

Historian Giles Wright has questioned how the tool could have been so treasured by blacksmiths in Africa, as described in Hidden in Plain View. His point is one to consider.

When Were Monkey Wrenches First Called by That Name?

An interesting piece of reading about wrenches and their origin is offered by Wikipedia: http://www.davistownmuseum.org/bioBostonWrench.htm

The article says that the monkey wrench is sometimes attributed to a man named Monk or Monck, but conclusive evidence for the attribution is not present. A history of monkey wrenches, also known as pipe wrenches, is given. The author postulates that this type of tool may have been imported from England.

He further states that some tools, including what is now referred to as "monkey wrenches," are sometimes found in New England cellars and may date from the eighteenth century. He reasons that frugal New England blacksmiths could have copied models from England. However, he seems to think that there is no conclusive date as to when this tool may have become known as "monkey wrench. "The tool may have also been called a "carriage wrench," he states. The Winterthur Museum has a wrench that is shown at the end of the Wikipedia article. The tool has been dated to circa 1790-1812, and is unlike modern examples which have teeth and an adjustable jaw, according to Jim Cummings.

The Connection is a Bit of a Stretch

The difficulty of clearly linking the “Monkey Wrench” quilt block to a useful purpose of transmitting escape messages within the Underground Railroad system, lies in proving that the sight of the quilt block could trigger a remembrance of the name of a possibly unfamiliar tool. Even if the tool had been called "Monkey Wrench," at the time, it is a stretch to believe that it could be interpreted to mean, “get your tools ready for we are leaving.”

The Making of The Complex Block, Wagon Wheel, Called into Question

Another block, the “Wagon Wheel,” an antique one shown here, conveys the idea that “escape may be made by wagon.” With its sixty-one pieces, this particular block would be time-consuming for any quilter to assemble, and with its individual elements such as convex and concave curves, the overlay of a center appliquéd circle, and (after the circle’s completion), its placement within a square via the method of reverse appliqué, the block could be a daunting task for many quilters. As a quiltmaker, it is hard to imagine that anyone would go to that much work to make that intricate a quilt (or even one block) unless it would be for one’s own personal use.

Conflicting Reports on Dresden Plate Block

We do not know how old this Wagon Wheel quilt design is. The block’s first published date is sometime between 1885 and 1930, and according to the Blockbase software index, it was printed by a company in Augusta, Maine called Vickery and Hill. I am calling the antique block shown here, a “Wagon Wheel Variation” because it has more pieces than usual. There is no known written documentation that confirms the use of this block within the Underground Railroad network.

Quilt Historians Rely on Published Sources for Quilt Names

This brings up a pressing issue. To determine the name of a quilt block, quilt historians rely on late nineteenth century (and beyond) print sources such as lady’s magazines, newspapers, and published patterns. Inconveniently for historians, quilt blocks were not widely published until the 1880s. Therefore, the antebellum period does not provide the kind of books with indexed and documented quilt block pattern names that we have today.

In addition, quilt block names themselves were never “dyed in the wool.” That is, they are fluid and change over time, depending on the geographic area, and the whims of the designers or publishers. For just one example, the “Monkey Wrench” block was also published as “Churn Dash” (1929), and as “Hole in the Barn Door” (1976).

Historians Seek Primary Source Material

Primary source material, such as letters, diaries, journals, inventories, birth and death certificates, marriage licenses, and so forth, can often serve as proof of provenance. For example, if a slave had written in her diary that on such and such a day, she had made a “Crossroads” block, the written word would be considered evidence. In the case of trying to document slave-made quilts, the biggest obstacle is that no such written trail exists. In the antebellum period, slaves were usually denied the right to read or write.

No Information Forthcoming from Oral Slave Interviews during the WPA Project

During the 1930s, as part of the Works Progress Administration’s Federal Writer's Project, interviews were conducted with former slaves. At the time, there was no fear of repercussions for any testimony that might be shared. Nonetheless, there was no mention of quilts being used as signals at that time. Without oral testimony or other proof, there appears to be no way to ascertain which quilt blocks existed in the middle of the nineteenth century, by which names they were known, or what they might have meant to their makers.

An Additional Myth?

In retrospect, the fascination with quilt blocks and their possible connection to the Underground Railroad seems to have begun in the 1980s. At that time, the popular story was circulating that Log Cabin quilts which feature blocks with black centers were hung outside. These, when placed on a fence or a clothesline would have indicated that the house was a “safe house.”

The obvious question is simple. If quilts were hung outside, would this not have aroused the suspicions of the authorities or slave-catchers, anxious to make bounty money? Since any quilter worth her salt would not leave a quilt outside in the damp night air, wouldn’t this practice look amiss and be a tip-off that slave sympathizers lived in the house? Slaves who were most likely to travel under cover of darkness most likely could not have seen which quilt pattern graced the surface of the quilt, and might not even have noticed the quilt itself!

Never having seen an early cotton Log Cabin quilt with black centers, a friend who attended a talk given by Dr. Dobard in Rhode Island, in the 1990s, asked him if he had ever personally seen one of these quilts. He replied, “No,” but that he was sure they were "out there.”

An Isolated Occurrence?

At a later time, Dr. Gloria Bowens, someone who lectures about the Underground Railroad, stated that an antique Log Cabin quilt with black centers has been found in Pennsylvania. The quilt had belonged to William Still (1821-1902), a Philadelphia abolitionist and conductor on the Underground Railroad who had recorded daily notes about his work that were published in 1872. No information has been forthcoming from Still’s journals, that would either prove or disprove the theory that Log Cabin quilts with black centers had any particular significance to escaping slaves. Leigh Fellner has come across just one Log Cabin quilt that is associated with the Still family, and it has yellow centers, not black ones.

Whether or not there was another Log Cabin quilt in the Still family that has black centers, has not been determined. The stories that associate Log Cabin quilts with Black Centers with Underground Railroad escapes appear to be "made of wholecloth," i.e. not true.

The usual colors of Log Cabin centers (chimneys) are red or yellow, hues that are reminiscent of the hearth, or candles in the window, respectively. The Log Cabin block examples shown here, for the sake of illustration, include a late nineteenth century Victorian Era Silk Log Cabin block with a red center, shown to the right, and a cotton Log Cabin block (newly-made) which features a blue center. The later, made as an example, was inspired by the book for children entitled, Under the Quilt of Night (NY: Atheneum Books for Young Readers, 2001).

Earliest Known Example of Log Cabin Quilt

According to a The Ultimate Quilting Book by Maggi McCormick Gordon (Collins & Brown, 1999), the earliest known example of a Log Cabin quilt in America has a provenance date of 1820. Quilts historians question this date.

Log Cabin quilts, now a perennial American favorite, have been mostly associated with the decade following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. He seized the office of the Presidency based, at least in part, on his humble beginnings in a log cabin home. At that time, cash prizes were offered at agricultural and state fairs in the Midwest and Log Cabin Quilts, easy even for a beginner to make, had their own separate category in competitions. When placed together, the blocks rely on the interplay of light and dark colors to create an overall configuration.

“Underground Railroad Quilt”

Speaking of whole quilt units, rather than just blocks, there is a traditional nineteenth century quilt configuration that is known as the “Underground Railroad quilt.” Barbara Brackman has this to say about the quilt:

As a quiltmaker I’ve always loved the pattern and the secrets hidden in the name. But as historian I’ve come to realize that there are no known quilts in this pattern dating back to the days of the Civil War or to the decades before the War when the Underground Railroad flourished. The pattern is common, but the quilts made in the design date from the 1890s or later.

In Always There: The African-American Presence in American Quilts by Cuesta Benberry (The Kentucky Quilt Project, Inc., 1992), the author tells us of an undocumented story that states that this same quilt pattern, “Underground Railroad,” was hung outside to signal safe houses.

Negro Spirituals Inspire Quilt Patterns

The same “Underground Railroad” design is considered to be a Bible Quilt, and was formerly called “Jacob’s Ladder,” before being renamed.

For those of you who know music, you will recognize “Jacob’s Ladder” as the name of a Negro spiritual. Music was and has been a very vital part of African and African-American culture.

Reportedly, one song in particular, "Follow the Drinkin' Gourd," was used to counsel runaway slaves to follow a certain star configuration, the "Big Dipper," (north) to freedom. See pages 119-123 of Hidden in Plain View, where the authors state that:

"Perhaps no song is more connected to the Underground Railroad than "Follow the Drinking Gourd."

The song's history, as investigated by H.B. Parks, a folklorist from Texas, is discussed. Please see the song file for more information.

One theory has it that such Negro spirituals as “Wade in the Water," and "I’ll Fly Away," and other commonly known songs of the day, may possibly have communicated hidden messages in the field, without raising any suspicions. That idea seems much more conceivable than the "secret quilt code."

Knot Placement as Secret Map Code

Based on Ozella's secret quilt code, an additional theory has been set forth that the twine ties that held the layers of quilts together were thought to be knotted signals, and a part of the secret quilt code that facilitated escapes.

The book, A Piece of My Soul: Quilts by Black Artisans (University of Arkansas Press, 2000), by Cuesta Benberry includes an introduction by Raymond Dobard who writes:

“The very act of tying the quilt might also have roots in African traditions in which tying knots for the Bakongo people of West Africa is integral to the making of a Nkisi, an object empowered to protect.”

The further assertion is that, in the case of slave knotted quilts, the placement of the knots may have been part of the “mapping vocabulary” that provided information about location and distance.

Ingrained Myth

This “new American myth” is becoming so ingrained in the American psyche that trying to combat its illogical nature is like trying to shovel sand against the tide. People, for some reason, want desperately to believe the legend, in the same way that a child needs to believe that there is a Santa Claus, the Easter Bunny, or Leprechauns. In the years that anyone has searched for real and tangible evidence of this "secret quilt code," simply no proof has been forthcoming.